This report, “Women’s Rights in the Gulf: Progress, Challenges, and the Road to Equality”, is published by the International United Nations Watch in collaboration with its managing partners the Center of Gender and Disaster, Georgian Technical University, Charisma Works, and International United Nations Watch. It is authored by Zahra Khan, a gender activist and co-founder of WanderHER focusing on women’s empowerment in STEM and sustainable development; Karina Iskandarova, a political scientist and consultant specializing in anti-trafficking, migration, and labor rights; and Professor Emilia Alaverdov, an academic at Georgian Technical University with expertise in religion, migration, and international relations. Together, they combine activist, policy, and academic perspectives to analyze the trajectory of women’s rights across the Gulf region.
The report argues that the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states are undergoing a subtle but profound transformation in women’s rights. From Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 reforms to the UAE’s gender balance initiatives, governments have recognized that empowering women is not only a moral imperative but also a strategic necessity for economic diversification and global competitiveness. Yet progress remains uneven: while women have gained visibility in education, business, and politics, patriarchal legal frameworks and cultural expectations continue to limit their autonomy.
Shifting Contexts: From Marginalization to Inclusion
The Gulf region has long been defined by patriarchal traditions, guardianship systems, and cultural conservatism that restricted women to domestic roles. Yet, over the past few decades, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have witnessed significant transformations. Women are increasingly visible in education, the economy, and politics, supported by modernization agendas and state reforms. This shift is described as a “tectonic change beneath the sand”: while not revolutionary, it is a recalibration of power dynamics where women are no longer mere beneficiaries but also architects of change. Social media and youth-led activism amplify this shift, exposing both progress and the superficiality of partial reforms.
Education as a Cornerstone
Education is one of the most transformative areas of progress. In nearly all GCC countries, women now outnumber men in higher education enrollment, excelling in fields such as science, engineering, medicine, and law. For example, Bahrain was the first Gulf country to establish girls’ schools in 1928, and the UAE has heavily invested in female education from its founding. Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 also positions women as a critical part of the knowledge economy. However, this educational success has not translated proportionally into labor market participation. While women are overrepresented in classrooms, they remain underrepresented in executive leadership, with workplace discrimination, societal expectations, and limited childcare infrastructure curbing their advancement.
Economic Empowerment: Growth and Constraints
Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE stand out for their attempts to expand women’s economic autonomy. In Bahrain, the Supreme Council for Women integrates gender equality into national strategies. The UAE has introduced equal pay laws, promoted women on corporate boards, and mandated gender balance in the Federal National Council. Saudi Arabia has enacted reforms allowing women to start businesses and join new professions.
Still, women entrepreneurs face structural challenges. Access to finance remains limited due to strict collateral requirements and risk-averse banking practices. Many women rely on family resources rather than institutional loans. A “trust gap” persists, as investors and lenders often doubt women’s long-term commitment to business ventures. Moreover, unpaid domestic labor disproportionately carried by women restricts their ability to fully engage in the economy. These issues highlight the paradox of progress: visibility in entrepreneurship is rising, but systemic inequalities slow deeper change.
Political Inclusion: Symbolic or Substantive?
Political rights have expanded unevenly. Kuwait granted women voting rights in 2005, resulting in women entering parliament by 2009, though representation has since declined due to tribal politics and social conservatism. Qatar permitted women to vote and run for municipal office in 1999, later appointing women to the Shura Council, but decision-making remains limited by centralized power. In Saudi Arabia, women gained the right to run in municipal elections in 2015 and have been appointed to the Shura Council, though meaningful political participation remains curtailed. Bahrain has appointed women ministers, judges, and ambassadors, while the UAE has mandated gender parity in its Federal National Council. Despite these developments, women’s roles in politics often remain tokenistic, with power still concentrated in male-dominated structures.
Legal Frameworks: Partial Gains and Persistent Gaps
The legal domain is where contradictions are most pronounced. Saudi Arabia has lifted the driving ban, eased some guardianship restrictions, and codified limited rights in its new Personal Status Law, yet male guardianship continues to dominate family law. Bahrain has enacted anti-discrimination and domestic violence laws, but sectarian legal systems (Sunni vs. Shi’a) result in uneven protections. Qatar’s constitution guarantees equality, but family law still enforces male guardianship, and women cannot pass nationality to children or foreign spouses. The UAE has updated family and labor laws and criminalized domestic violence, but guardianship and inheritance laws still favor men. These frameworks reveal a pattern of reforms designed for international optics while preserving patriarchal structures at their core.
Cultural Norms and Social Barriers
Legal progress often collides with entrenched cultural expectations. Women are expected to prioritize family responsibilities, limiting their access to professional advancement. Informal power networks like majlis in Saudi Arabia or diwaniya in Kuwait exclude women, restricting their social and business capital. Stereotypes persist, portraying women as less assertive leaders or entrepreneurs. Social stigma also discourages reporting of domestic abuse or workplace harassment. The persistence of these cultural barriers demonstrates the lag between formal reforms and lived realities.
Country Comparisons
- Bahrain: A leader in early reforms, granting women political rights in 2002 and creating the Supreme Council for Women. Yet sectarian divisions in family law and cultural conservatism limit equality.
- Kuwait: Civil society is more open, but women’s political representation is inconsistent. Despite educational achievements, legal discrimination in family law persists.
- Oman: Reforms have been cautious and largely top-down. Education and public sector employment empower women, but patriarchal personal status laws remain.
- Qatar: Strong progress in education and symbolic political representation, but women face severe restrictions in family law and nationality rights.
- Saudi Arabia: Vision 2030 reforms have eased some restrictions, allowing driving and business ownership. Yet political repression, guardianship laws, and rural-urban divides reveal structural inequities.
- UAE: The most globally recognized for women’s empowerment, with gender quotas, high labor force participation, and visible female leaders. However, reforms remain state-driven and exclude migrant women, who face exploitation under the kafala system.
Lessons from Iran
The report situates the Gulf in a broader Middle Eastern context by examining Iran. The 1979 Islamic Revolution curtailed women’s rights drastically, but women became central to resistance movements. The death of Mahsa Amini in 2022 reignited protests against compulsory hijab and state repression, underscoring women’s resilience under authoritarian constraints. For Gulf states, Iran serves both as a warning about regression and as evidence of women’s ability to mobilize for rights under restrictive systems.
Persistent Challenges
Despite undeniable progress, several challenges remain central:
- Incomplete reform of family and guardianship laws.
- Unequal application of rights between urban and rural women, nationals and migrants.
- Economic barriers such as lack of finance and systemic gender bias.
- Cultural resistance and social stigma tied to traditional roles.
- Restrictions on independent civil society and feminist activism.
The report concludes that the GCC states must move beyond symbolic gestures to genuine structural reforms. True equality requires dismantling guardianship systems, reforming family law, ensuring equal economic rights, and expanding civic space. Intersectional approaches are also essential: policies must address disparities based on class, nationality, and migrant status. Education, digital activism, and Islamic feminist reinterpretations of religious texts are emerging as promising pathways to deeper change.
The Gulf has made undeniable strides in women’s empowerment, but the journey is far from complete. Until reforms address root causes rather than surface-level optics, equality will remain aspirational. The road to gender justice in the Gulf is long, but the trajectory is no longer a mirage; it is a reality slowly, but steadily, being shaped by women themselves.
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